Reimagining Society through Personalism: Emmanuel Mounier's Emphasis on the Common Good and Its Contemporary Relevance

By: Barend Tensen holds master degrees in political science (international relations) and philosophy, specializing in personalism as a theory of justice during his philosophy studies in Leuven. He has written several essays on Emmanuel Mounier and personalism, is politically active, and works at the intersection of local politics and the European Union.

Introduction

Central to personalism is the clear distinction between the individual and the person. Perhaps none other than French philosopher Emmanuel Mounier had made such a sharp and compelling distinction between these two concepts, which makes him an intriguing figure to study. With his emphasis on the uniqueness of the person and his place within something larger, namely the community, Mounier’s thinking relates to current societal challenges. As tensions rise between different population groups, uncertainties grow, and the influence of traditional Christian pillars declines, many people are searching for new meaning and identity. In this context, Mounier’s personalism could offer a framework that values both individual dignity and the importance of communal belonging, suggesting a balance between personal identity and social cohesion.

This essay explores the life and philosophy of Mounier, focusing on his foundational role in the development of personalism. It delves into key aspects of his thought and elaborates on the distinction he makes between the ‘person’ and the ‘individual’. Furthermore, it emphasizes the importance of personhood and briefly examines the political and societal implications of Mounier’s theory of action. I will conclude with thoughts on his enduring impact.

Emmanuel Mounier and the foundations of his personalism

Philosopher and activist

As a young philosopher in the early 1930s, Mounier was deeply affected by the catastrophic consequences of the stock market crash and the rise of Nazism and fascism. Mounier also became a prominent figure during World War II and actively opposed the totalitarian regimes of his time, particularly Nazism. He saw in Nazism and fascism the ultimate expressions of dehumanizing ideologies, which reduced people to mere instruments of the state or the race. He condemned the materialism, individualism, and capitalism of modern civilization, advocating for a cultural revolution — a reconstruction of our civilization.[i]

Against this backdrop, Mounier's personalism asserted the inviolable dignity of every person and the necessity of community structures that respect and nurture this dignity. He argued that capitalism, with its focus on profit and competition, fostered alienation and exploitation. Instead of nurturing human potential, it created vast inequalities and social fragmentation. Mounier envisioned an economic system grounded in solidarity and cooperation, one that would enable all individuals to contribute meaningfully to the common good.

His vision for societal transformation was grounded in the belief that personalism could provide a robust alternative to the prevailing socio-economic paradigms. He sought to cultivate a society where individuals were not merely isolated but integral parts of a larger, interconnected community. In his view, the individual must both serve the common good, becoming a fully engaged member of society, without being reduced to a subservient part of it. Through the journal ‘Esprit’, which he founded in 1932 at the age of twenty-seven[ii], Mounier disseminated his ideas, reaching a wide audience and, eventually, influencing many thinkers and activists. The journal provided a forum for discussing the ethical and philosophical underpinnings of personalism.

Personalist Manifesto and Personalism
In his Personalist Manifesto, published in 1936, and in his seminal work Personalism (1950), Mounier laid out a comprehensive program for societal change. He emphasized that personalism was not a rigid system but a dynamic philosophy, one that embraced the unpredictability of human creativity and the evolving nature of social relations. He argued that a truly personalist society must safeguard human rights, promote individual and collective initiative, and ensure that institutions serve the genuine needs of people rather than subordinating them to bureaucratic or economic imperatives. Moreover, Mounier's personalism extended beyond the political and economic realms to encompass cultural and spiritual dimensions. He believed that a true cultural revolution required a reawakening of spiritual values and a rejection of the secularism and relativism that he saw as pervasive in modern life. He called for a renewed focus on the moral and ethical foundations of society, grounded in a sense of transcendent purpose, meaning goals and aspirations that go beyond material gains.

His program did not offer definitive solutions, but rather intended to be an encompassing worldview: “Personalism is a philosophy, it is not merely an attitude. It is a philosophy, but not a system”, he writes in Personalism.[iii] A personalist society aims to protect human rights and prevent the encroachment of the state or other institutions into personal domains. Positively defined, personalism seeks to organize society in such a way that it maximized initiative, responsibility, community, and decentralization at every level. This framework provides a strong alternative to individualism, striving for a society where the common good is the sum of collective efforts rather than individual or incidental associations. A crucial element of his thinking is the belief that pure philosophical rationalism cannot fully grasp the phenomenon of the person.

Key concepts: interiorization and exteriorization
In Mounier's work, there is a clear connection between the spiritual (with a distinctly religious undertone) and the physical, reminiscent of the approach taken by medieval philosophers. Henri Marrou aptly describes this by stating that what Mounier "discovered, felt, lived, and preached by his example is, in brief, that the spiritual is itself physical." [iv] This concept is strongly reflected in Mounier's key concepts: "interiorization" and "exteriorization."

Interiorization describes humans as beings in search of identity and vocation, focusing on inwardness. It emphasizes the inward journey of self-discovery and the formation of personal values, rather than external achievements or societal roles. This process involves reflecting on one's inner life, aspirations, and ethical commitments, ultimately guiding individuals towards a deeper understanding of their purpose and place in the world. Exteriorization, on the other hand, is the outward expression of this vocation through engagement with the world. It involves translating one's internal values and identity into concrete actions and interactions within society.

Person vs. individual
In Traité du Caractère, published in 1947, Mounier extensively incorporated insights from depth psychology to substantiate his view of human nature. The challenge, he argues, of becoming a true person involves transforming this egocentrism into genuine personhood.[v] Thus, exteriorization reflects the outward manifestation of one's internal journey and commitment to the common good.[vi] The person, in this context, identifies with the external world and seeks to contribute meaningfully to it, embodying their vocation through service, creativity, or social involvement. In contrast, the individual who remains egocentric, focuses primarily on personal survival and self-interest, with the risk of reducing his existence to mere biological functioning without broader societal engagement.

This clear distinction between the person and the individual has permeated contemporary human rights discourse, as Hans Joas describes in his new genealogy of human rights The Sacredness of the Person: (2013): “The concept of the person has the additional advantage that unlike that of the individual it cannot be understood as contrasting with society (or community). Instead, it implies the inevitable sociality of the individual and a specific type of social life of which the personhood of every individual is constitutive.”[vii]

To grow as a person, according to Mounier, one must transcend individualism.[viii] His personalism acknowledges both the spiritual and embodied nature of humans, avoiding complete despiritualization or dematerialization to maintain balance. This balance is essential for personal development and community formation.[ix]

Love and existentialism
Unlike Sartre's existentialist idea that freedom comes from deciding your own path, Mounier believes that true personal freedom comes from a deeper purpose or calling. This calling gives people spiritual strength. Compared to existentialism, his personalism is more focused on the relational aspect of being human. Personalism scholar Juan Manuel Burgos describes this as “an ontological and subsistent reality, located in the world and within the capacity of modifying it through his freedom”.[x] This transcendent force allows individuals to prioritize the common good over personal interests, creating a harmonious interplay between internal and external dimensions. When this balance is achieved, the person helps realize a community that transcends mere aggregation of individuals.

In contrast to Descartes’ cogito ergo sum, Mounier places love as an existential force above the cerebral.[xi] This originates in agapè, the highest form of love that persists independently of circumstances, encompassing both love for God and God’s love for humanity.[xii] Through agapè, personal transcendence reveals that each self inherently contains the other, essential for its existence. Personalism identifies two modes of transcendence: production and self-sharing. Production involves transforming the material world to embody the self, thereby extending physical and personal being. Self-sharing calls individuals to transcend themselves by sharing with others, creating a cohesive community that is a person in its own right.[xiii] This means that when individuals give of themselves—through empathy, cooperation, and mutual support—they contribute to a larger whole. The community, formed by these shared efforts, becomes like a single entity, with its own identity and purpose, made up of the unique contributions of each person.

Catholic beginnings
Mounier advocates for a (political) structure that moves beyond individualistic and materialistic frameworks, seeking instead to cultivate a society where persons are interrelated in a meaningful, supportive, and morally grounded community. The social union envisioned by Mounier aligns with the Catholic social teaching that profoundly influenced the development of personalism, positing that humans are intrinsically at home in a community that values the common good.

This line of thought derives directly from the subsidiarity principle inspired by Catholic social teaching. The encyclicals Rerum Novarum (1891) and Quadragesimo Anno (1931) elaborate extensively on the relationship between the state and subordinate groups, seeking to bridge the gap between the individual and society. In Quadragesimo Anno, section 79, Pope Pius XI asserts that it is a fundamental principle of social philosophy to respect the individual and channel entrepreneurial efforts towards the common good. This principle assumes that people are naturally social beings and underscores the importance of social circles such as family, church, and volunteer organizations as structures through which individuals can contribute to society.[xiv]

Kinds of unity
Rather than focusing on a democracy of isolated individuals, personalism advocates for a democracy of persons. This foundational distinction shifts the focus from the individual to the person, emphasizing the common good. The implications of this view for political practice can be explained in three distinct levels.

There is accidental unity, where individuals are seen as coincidental groupings, such as people waiting at a bus stop. This form of unity is purely incidental and lacks any deeper social or moral order. It highlights the limitations of a society that merely aggregates individuals without fostering genuine connections or common purpose.

There are also partnerships, where individuals come together to share resources for private gain, such as members of a pension fund. While these partnerships can achieve significant material benefits and operational efficiencies, they still fall short of fostering true community. The relationships within these partnerships are transactional and do not provide the deeper, immaterial cohesion that binds a community together in a meaningful way.

Mounier envisions a social union, a society that prioritizes the indivisible common good over accidental unity or private gain. He argues that individualism can only create the first two types of orders – accidental unity and partnerships – and lacks the means to uphold an indivisible common good. In a social union, the community is more than the sum of its parts; it is a cohesive entity that remains stable despite changes in its composition. The common good, which transcends transient individual concerns, serves as the bedrock of this social union. This form of community aligns with the personalist view that true human flourishing occurs within a context that values and supports each person’s unique contribution to the collective well-being.

Uniting through personalism: Mounier’s call for community and common good

Bridging the divide: personhood

Mounier’s personalism seeks to affirm the primacy of the person over the collective while affirming that the community is essential for the person, and has been coined, at some point, ‘communitarian personalism’ by himself.[xv] It emphasizes the interconnectedness of individuals and their communities. Especially along the lines of reconciling religious and spiritual thought with modern society, since each person should contribute to the common good and prioritize it. At the same time, the common good should support personal development, as individuals are also its ultimate purpose. A person can only find himself when he ‘loses’ himself in the world, for others.[xvi]

Mounier's ethical imperative inherent in the idea that freedom begins with recognizing the freedom of others, and the responsibility that follows, enables the nurturing of culture, even within a highly diverse society. This awareness of a shared mission—building a common future—presents opportunities for (re)connection.

Societal implications: Mounier’s theory of action
To effectively connect this crucial intuition to the practical aspects of society, Mounier's personalistic theory of action could serve as a guide. His premise is that our actions must presuppose freedom and cooperation to avoid descending into meaninglessness. Action should 1) impact the surrounding reality, 2) shape the individual, and 3) bring us closer to others while enriching our value universe. These characteristics may not always be equally present but should harmonize to achieve authentic action.

Mounier distinguishes between different types of action using three demarcations. First, external matter must be dominated and organized, including the industrial process imposed on nature, extending to the material aspects of culture or religion. He terms this economic action, where the primary goal is efficiency. Yet, unlike a strictly liberal economic interpretation, humans will not find fulfilment in this action without fraternity, dignity, and something transcending pure utilitarianism. Neglecting these conditions limits the economically oriented person to technocracy, viewing human relations merely as objective laws. Human connections cannot form solely on technical elements, and this issue can only be circumvented through politics. In other words, the economy needs politics to act ethically.

Personalization in politics

On the political level, the economy becomes personalized, and its personnel institutionalized. Apolitical action leads to an impersonal technocratic whole and a flight from spiritual reality. Action must be assessed not only on its success in intervening in the external world but also on personal development: virtues and integrity. The core criterion of ethical action here is authenticity. It concerns not so much what a person does but how they do it and what they become in the process.[xvii]

Mounier recognizes that culture is a derivative of religion, but he also emphasizes the significant role of politics in his vision of society. He admires the Greeks for viewing the polis as a community focused on contemplative wisdom rather than economic or technical power, often showing disdain for materialism. Contemplative action, meaning the relationship between intellectual contemplation and active engagement with the world, plays a decisive role in maintaining the balance with economic and ethical practices, addressing the means-end problem. If it were possible for humans to live purely by a system of technical means, these means would so incorporate the end that no distinction would be possible. Efficiency would dominate, leaving no room for personal relationships, based on far more than mere output.

The prophetic and the political

This contemplation is a holistic operation, striving for a domain of values that pervades all human activity. Its goal is perfection and universality, while also disrupting existing practices — economic and ethical. Mounier calls this type of action ‘prophetic’, as it arises from a higher moral standpoint and connects contemplation with practical matters. It is deeply engaged with the world, driven by a spiritual vision to transform society. Mounier argues that ideal action balances the prophetic and political realms, combining practical compromise with moral reflection and courage. Mounier's personalist movement itself, as described earlier in this essay, was an example of prophetic action. It challenged the dehumanizing aspects of capitalism and totalitarianism, calling for a society based on human dignity, moral values, and solidarity, while engaging politically to reshape social structures.

Mounier posits that society needs a balance between prophetic and political spheres. Few can integrate technical, political, moral, prophetic, and contemplative aspects. Ideal action should navigate between the political and prophetic, utilizing political intuition for compromise and prophetic inclination for reflection, spirituality, and courage.[xviii]

Citizenship, belonging to the political sphere, is intrinsically linked to personhood. The person, capable of making value judgments beyond the political realm, is central to Mounier's societal vision. His advocacy for ethical action, the importance of human relationships as a counterbalance to excessive bureaucracy, and his call for a society composed of people with diverse talents and backgrounds highlight his vision for a pluralistic state. A state that does not impose but allows space for individuals and their distinctive features, and operates through a diversity of communities and institutions, ensuring balance instead of disruption. This community spirit has significantly influenced Christian democratic thought, and figures like Robert Schuman, one of the founders of the European Union and an important figure in French Christian democracy, were shaped by Mounier's ideas, especially regarding European integration and the role of community in politics.

Uniqueness within the collective
Modern societies are grappling with a variety of identity crises, such as the decreased sense of common ground in contemporary societies resulting in tension between our own identity and embracing the diversity of others. This includes conflicts, such as between traditional religious communities and radical elements, that even resort to violence. Similarly, there is a divide between post-religious and secular individuals within these communities. The dominant Jewish-Christian religious framework has faded, leaving a somewhat vague sense of identity in its wake. As a result, identity has become one of the most urgent issues of our time. The lack of a unified identity fosters conflict, as the multitude of 'I’s' fail to form a 'We.' A 'We' can emerge from a shared past, however, with the integration of new cultures, a shared past is increasingly scarce. As an alternative, perhaps our collective future may serve as the foundation for a new 'We,' something that we can create together and that can unite us.

While it is important not to rigidly cling to traditional institutions, our common heritage can still inspire the design of our society. Maintaining a connection to the foundational events that shaped these institutions is valuable. Furthermore, openness to other cultures allows us to view the future as a shared project we can build together. This aligns with Mounier’s view of the person as always part of something greater, while still maintaining individual uniqueness within the collective.

Moral reactions gain meaning from frames of reference. Humans need to engage with contexts that reveal what they fundamentally value. This desire is a becoming, a spiritual orientation according to Mounier, that gives our lives meaning and thus forms the story of our existence. Modern scepticism of highly valued ideals limits the space to establish normative conceptions of the good; from transcendent love, we have shifted to immanent reverence through modern humanism.

Concluding remarks

Mounier's view of the person suggests that a calling precedes the realization of freedom, which also directs attention to the other. Persons are called to transcend themselves. This calling makes them free and enables them to respond. It stimulates them to write their own history and consequently contribute to the broader history—the common good. Socially, this results in a politics of recognition: mutual recognition because identities are formed through fruitful dialogue. This can only happen through an integral concept of the person, where individuals and society mutually reinforce each other.

As we reflect on Mounier's legacy, it becomes clear that his insights are as relevant today as they were in his time. His work remains a touchstone for those seeking to develop a more humane and just society, one that honours the full complexity and dignity of the human person.

In an era marked by growing social divisions, economic inequalities, and existential uncertainties, his early call for a personalist revolution — a transformation of society based on the principles of solidarity, responsibility, and respect for human dignity — offers a powerful vision for the future as well as a framework that addresses the pressing need for unity amidst diversity. Reimaging society through Mounier’s personalism could mean a significant step towards a society where diverse identities can coexist, grounded in a common future and a shared commitment to the common good.

Notes

[i] R. William Rauch, Politics and Belief in Comtemporary France. Emmanuel Mounier and Christian Democracy 1932-1950. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff 1972, p. 53-56

[ii] J.M. Burgos, An Introduction to Personalism. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press 2012/2018 p. 65

[iii] E. Mounier, Personalism. (Trans.) Mairet, P. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul LTD, 1952/2007, p. 23, 61. p. vii-viii

[iv] H. Marrou, La Signification Religieuse de la Pensée d’ Emmanuel Mounier, B.A.E.M. No. 28, 1966, p. 31

[v] E. Mounier, Oeuvres (Tome II Traité du Caractère), Paris: Seuill 1947, p. 479-649

[vi] E. Mounier, The Personalist Manifesto. (Vert.) Monniken van de St. John’s Abdij, Minnesota. New York: Longmans Green and Co., 1936 pp. 71

[vii] H. Joas, The Sacredness of the Person: A New Genealogy of Human Rights. Washington, DC, Georgetown University Press, 2013, P. 51

[viii] E. Mounier, Personalism. (Trans.) Mairet, P. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul LTD, 1952/2007

[ix] J. Amato, Mounier and Maritain: A French Catholic Understanding of the Modern World. Alabama: The University of Alabama Press 1975, p. 13, 18-19, 118-119

[x] J.M. Burgos, An Introduction to Personalism. Washington DC: The Catholic University of America Press 2012/2018 p. 72

[xi] E. Mounier, Personalism. (Trans.) Mairet, P. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul LTD, 1952/2007, p. 23, 61

[xii] S.G. Post, The Tradition of Agape. In (Red.) Post, S.G., Underwood, L.G., Schloss, J.P. & Hurlbu, W.B. Altruism and Altruistic Love: Science, Philosophy, and Religion in Dialogue. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2002, p. 51-64

[xiii] C.S.J. Eileen Cantin, Mounier: A Personalist View of History. New York: Paulist Press 1973, p .76-78

[xiv] Pius XI, Quadragesimo Anno, Vatican City State: Libreria Editrice Vaticana 1931 section 79.

[xv] J.M. Burgos, An Introduction to Personalism. Washington D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press 2012/2018 p. 71

[xvi] E. Mounier, Emmanuel (1947), Oeuvres (Tome II Traité du Caractère; Paris: Seuil). P. 565-75;
(1962a), 'Le personnalisme', Oeuvres (Tome III 1944-1950; Paris: Seuil), p. 427

525.

[xvii] D. Deweer, Naar een personalistisch republikanisme. Persoon-zijn en burgerschap bij Ricoeur (Diss.) Consulted via the collection of the Centre for Ethics, Social and Political Philosophy, KU Leuven 2015: p. 35-37

[xviii] Ibid.